Romanesque Art In The Puy-de-Dôme

Behind the art of the Romanesque there is human story waiting to be told. From the early Middle Ages the construction of such monuments was instigated by the Church and important social figures and we can but marvel at the workmanship of those involved in their actual erection. Think of the effort required to quarry the stone and transport it, of the laborious skill of the chieef masons, clerical and secular, and the labourers!

This can all be seen in the Basse-Auvergne region (approximately Puy-de-Dôme), which offers the richest choice of characteristic Romanesque architecture in Auvergne. The many buildings here constitute am exceptional national treasure.

The homogeneity of the Auvergnat style (complex architectural structures of simple precision and rare monumental power) is due to the relatively rapid erection of the monuments mostly built in a single campaign.

It was primarily for economic reasons, that the construction procedures favoured solid structures and borrowed some of their main elements from pre-Romanesque architecture: narthex; nave; transept; chevet.

There may seem to be a certain severity about some of these buildings (due to the sober decoration, the lack of openings), but you will find that the purity of the architectural lines and the harmonious proportions give an elegant balance to the whole.

Make detailed visits to each of the churches to judge this quality, but be sure to get a general impression of the building by going from the symbolic darkness of the nave into the light of the choir. Then going slowly, pause to contemplate the last bay of the nave.

Face the choir and let your eyes wander around the vast space taking in the transept and the great vaults. It is just here where the forms converge, enhanced by the play of light, that the architectural density becomes light and mysteriously appeasing.


Notre-Dame Du Port
Clermont Ferrand, late 11th to early 12th century

Located in the very heart of the city, Notre-Dame du Port owes its name to the district in which it was built. You will find the church by strolling through the charming narrow streets of the old centre, and inevitably you will soon discover it - a powerful and moving monument of great beauty. Then, pushing open the impressive main door, you find more surprises as you are transported from the immediate buzz of urban life into a domain of spirituality and meditation.

The original church was founded in the 6th century by Saint Avit, bishop of Clermont, but rose again from its ashes when destroyed in the 12th century. The west front was completed on the instigation of another bishop of Clermont, Ponce de Polignac, who in 1185 appealed to the generosity of the clergy and the faithful, by promising indulgences and canon’s prayers to the generous.

The richness of the stone carving is especially visible in the many capitals that tell stories, They seem to show sequences like the memorable scenes of a film: the struggle of Vice (Avarice) and Virtue (Generosity and Charity), and important events from the Bible. The easy to understand episodes, if you give them time to unfold, sometimes offer surprising versions. A remarkable example is the capital showing the expulsion of Adam and Eve from the garden of Eden. An angel takes Adam by the beard while he, believing himself not the only one to blame, pulls Eve’s hair.

The decoration of the South portal is like a real comic strip. From left to right, despite damage to the lintel, we can make out the scene of the adoration of the Magi, the presentation in the Temple followed by the Baptism of Christ. The tympanum shows Christ in his Majesty, and the tetramorph of the four Evangelists and two seraphim angels sprouting several pairs of wings which they hide behind.



Saint-Austremoine
Issoire, early 12th century

The former Benedictine abbey of Issoire, this is the largest of the churches of the Basse-Auvergne region. It takes its name from Saint Austremoine, apostle and archbishop of Auvergne who was buried in Issoire at the end of the 3rd century. The first religious sanctuary was probably built shortly afterwards. We should remember that the churches of the Romanesque period were often built on sacred sites. The church’s position in the centre of a large esplanade reinforces its monumental aspect, geometrical forms which harmoniously fit together. From the furthest reaches of the valley of Limagne, Saint-Austremoine of Issoire is a significant landmark.

There is a certain point at daybreak when the sun emerges from the horizon to shed a strange halo of light of Saint-Austremoine and turns the arkose stone a golden colour.

Restorations carried out during the 19th century recovered the polychrome interior. This may come as something of a shock, but it is entirely in keeping with the churches of the Middle Ages which were all richly painted, quite unlike the present bare wall tradition.

The church’s most celebrated capital can be seen in the chancel, in the ambulatory: it portrays The Last Supper. The form of the table runs all around the bell of the capital and the composition is an inspired example of the workshop method (a group of carvers working under a master craftsman).



Notre-Dame D’Orcival
Orcival, between 1146 and 1178

Romanesque churches were oriented towards sunrise, a symbol of God, which explains the orientation of Notre-Dame d’Orcival in this site. Various modifications were carried out on the surrounding landscape to keep to this rule. These included cutting into the mountain to the west, carrying out major earth-moving work to the East as well as diverting a brook. So the church nestles in the valley between the impressive peaks of the Monts Dore. It is worth a trip to the nearby heights to look down onto the small stone slab roofed houses huddled around the church as if for protection.

Entering the church through the Saint-Jean door, the bays of the nave are veiled in soft light (from the North and South side aisles) while the transept and the choir are bathed in a flood of sunlight. The full splendour of the inside of this church can be witnessed in the morning. It is as this time of day when, approaching the altar, the symbolic passage from ‘darkness to the light of the world’ can be fully experienced. This light of the world represents the presence of Christ in this sanctuary and explains why so much trouble has been taken to make this spot the focal point of the church.

The statue of Notre-Dame d’Orcival in the centre of the choir ows its conservation to the swift reaction of the monks who hid it during the French Revolution. It is the only remaining gilded statue of the Virgin Marie in the Auvergne.




Saint-Nectaire
between 1146 and 1178

Rising alone on the pedestal of Mont Cornadore as if made for it, the church of Saint-Nectaire dominates the whole area. A delight to the approaching visitor, it evokes the splendour of a cathedral. This is a tribute to the talent of the builders of Auvergne who imparted such powerful monumentality to their buildings through a play of forms rather than dimensions.

Like a vessel of brown (trachyte) stone covered by the golden lichen of time, the church of Saint-Nectaire rises up against the green hillside. Further away in the same alignment as the nave, we can make out another form: the ruins of the castle of Murol.

The inside of the church is equally impressive. The six capitals of the round end of the choir form one of the most beautiful ensembles in the region. Some of the scenes represented here are recurring themes in Auvergne such as the Holy Woman at the Sepulchre. Other are rare (the Passion) or unique to this site (the Descent into Limbo and the Transfiguration). On one side of the capitals we can make out the detailed life story of the eponymous local evangelist: Saint-Nectaire. Another interesting story is that of Ranulphe. Most probably a generous donor, Ranulphe is portrayed in an unfortunate posture, clinging to a column while an angel seizes him by the wrist and a masked figure pulls him by the hair (the eternal combat of Good versus Evil). The ingenuity of such a scene is a tribute to the carvers, often less concerned with representing real-life (the heads are disproportionately large to the size of the bodies) than telling a story or getting an idea across. Each workshop of carvers had its own particular “recipes”, visual language and personality. The monumental character of the stonecarving in Auvergne probably links back to the Gallo-Roman heritage. The Romanesque statue of the Virgin Marie and Child: Notre-Dame du Mont-Cornadore reflects this sense of the monumental. The Virgin holds her infant on her knees. The sculptor has represented her as the throne of eternal wisdom: this is called the Virgin in Majesty.



Saint-Saturnin
late 12th century

Visit the church of Saint-Saturnin, and the marvel of a village which surrounds it makes an equally impressive discovery. Together they form an architectural unity virtually unchanged since the Middle Ages. As your steps follow the trails of yesteryear, you may chance to wonder. And if you visit the impressive château near the church, you realise these routes belonged to the Great people of the world: the celebrated family of la Tour d’Auvergne, from whom decended Queen Catherine of Medici and Turenne, Marshal of France.

The church of Saint-Saturnin has a sober aspect and is relatively unadorned. Architecture always tells a story and the information here suggests that it is probably the last major building of Romanesque Auvergne. It conforms to the general style of Basse Auvergne region but there are some significant changes. These are due, in part to economic constraints (construction was a costly business), and in part to discarding certain details established in the previous century. Significantly there is no narthex or radiating chapels, and this gives Saint-Saturnin its unique form.

The bell tower is another unusual aspect of this church. It is the original bell tower, a rarity admired by architectural entusiasts because it survived the French Revolution. An eight sided form with twin-arched openings on two levels, it is topped by a slender stone spire, which adds to its simple elegance. In the second bay of the Northern side aisle, if you look carefully, you will discover a remarkable mural painting dating back to the 15th century which represents Saint Gabriel. The light from the window to the left reveals the attention to detail and the richness of the palette; the perspective is particularly well observed and the decor is impressively realistic.



Abbey Church of Mozac
early 12th century

Romanesque churches were, for the most part, built on sacred sites and it is therefore quite natural to find remains dating back from the pre-Romanesque period. This is the case at Mozac. The original foundation of this abbey dates back to the 7th century and it has experienced a series of metamorphoses throughout the centuries. The simple decorative motifs of the Bible scenes undoubtedly provide the best example of Basse-Auvergne sculpture. Deep in the church you will find two capitals at eye level and a third, discovered in 1983, displayed on the floor of the choir.

Originally, these capitals were to be found at the round end but a series of earthquakes in the 15th century destroyed the chevet and the south side of the abbey church. They were reconstructed at the end of the same century.



Collegiale Church of Ennezat
circa 1070

This is the oldest of all major Romanesque churches of the Auvergne. It was a source of inspiration for the other churches of the region and remains a reference in the history of Auvergne’s Romanesque Art. A series of alterations were carried out from the 13th century. Finding the Romanesque choir too cramped, the canons replaced the original chevet with an overwhelming Gothic chevet. You can find two remarkable mural paintings there: The Last Judgement (1405) and the story of the three dead and the three live men (1420). Only the nave and transept were spared. Under a pointed barrel vault, the nave rises up as if carved from a single block of stone.

The illustration on a capital at the end of the nave warns of the painful end reserved for the usurer with the scene of his miseries. Naked, his purse around his neck, he hides his treasure at his feet, all the while gripped by two fearsome demons. An inscription in Latin reads: “By practising usury, you have been working for me.”


Arlanc
Church of Saint-Pierre

The seat of a priory founded in 972 by the de Montboissier family and dependent on the abbey of La Cluse in Piémont, the church of Saint-Pierre was built during the 12th century. It is fairly remote from Clermont and its layout and structure differentiate it from the great examples in the Limagne. Here, the barrel vault of the chief nave is reinforced with archbands, the large arcade has a pointed double roll, eith groined vault side aisles.

The crossing of the transept is without a cupola on squinches. The three naves end in three demi cupola apses decorated with arcatures. The capitals are decorated with foliage, masks, mermaids.... Outside the chevet, round arch openings outlined with a torus alternate with buttresses. The cornice rests on modillions.



Artonne

Artonne was an important vicus in the Merovingian period and had a church dedicated to Saint Martin (who came to Artonne in the 4th century) from very early on. It was made a collegiate church in 1048. The current building is heterogenous. Apart from the Roman columns which are reused in the south wall, some elements appear to be prior to 1048. This seems to be the case for the lower parts of the nave, separated from the side aisles by pillars topped with imposts. The vaulting of the chief nave, the barrel supported on transverse ribs seems to have been built later, with a few high windows having been preserved. The transept, whose crossing is covered by a cupola on squinches, has also been altered. A side room runs along it, divided into three much restored naves. The chancel with ambulatory and radiating quadrangular chapels is a later addition built in the 12th century. It is surrounded with Romanesque wrought iron railings.



Bansat

Set in the village fortifications, the church of Saint-Julien came under the dependency of the abbey of La Chaise-Dieu. Built in the 12th century, it was fortified in the 14th century, along with several churches (e.g. Mailhat) in the vicinity. One storey was added with oriels and tower, the remains of which are visible on the west front. This is one of the rare churches in the Puy-de-Dôme to have retained its original Romanesque belfry, on two levels with genuine openings. It was further extended with one floor of machicolation at the time of fortification. The receding arches of the western doorway give entry to a single nave which is lit by two rose-windows added later (and restored) in the west and south.



Beaumont

Tradition has it that Beaumont abbey was founded in the 7th century by Saint Genès, count og Auvergne. The minster, dedicated to Saint Pierre, dates from the 11th century for the main part. It consists of a chevet with five staggered chapels, a protruding transept and three naves.

The nave, lit by three tall windows, and the crossing are barrel-vaulted, the side aisles half barrel-vaulted. It is likely that the western parts were reworked at a very early stage, as the transverse ribs resting on corbelling brackets, the raising of the sustaining walls visible outside, and the solid masses of masonry which close the aisles on the east side seem to demonstrate.

The chevet is very ornate, with arcatures and a series of capitals. Fine furniture and tombstones. Some remains of the old cloister are kept south of the church.



Besse-et-Saint-Anastaise

The nave, the side aisles and the transept in the church of Saint-André are a good example of the use of Besse lava stone in Romanesque architecture. The barrel vault of the nave is supported by cylindrical pillars, as in Saint-Nectaire and Chauriat. The capitals are richly decorated: man-monkeys on a leash, minotaurs displaying their name (minotaurus), the rich man in the parable, the taunting of Saint André.... As early as the 16th century, pilgrims flocked to Notre-Dame de Vassivière in such numbers that the chancel had to be enlarged (15th century stalls and misericords depicting crafts and vices). Between the 17th and the 19th centuries, the chapels were added and the south doorway and the steeple were rebuily. Each year at the beginning of July, the Virgin (the original one was burned during the Revolution) is carried up to the chapel in Vassivière, a gift from Catherine de Medici in 1555. The statue spends the winter in Besse, the “Dévalade” taking place at the end of September.



Billom

Billom has had a church dedicated to Saint Cerneuf since the second half of the 10th century and there is evidence of a chapter of canons there as early as the end of the 11th century. Of the Romanesque collegiate church, only a few remains of the chevet and crypt subsist. The chancel was reworked several times; however, its Romanesque structure is still clearly visible and not unlike that of some large monuments in Auvergne such as Orcival or Saint-Nectaire. The ambulatory is still almost intact. The radiating chapels, the round end of the choir and the elevated parts have been modified at various times. The crypt is interesting in several respects. It was built like a half buried hall, with a central room surrounded by an ambulatory and four radiating chapels, as in the church above. The nave, erected in the 13th century, is a fine example of the beginnings of Gothic art in Auvergne. Fragments of a probably very rich Romanesque polychrome can be seen outside, by the chevet.



Biollet
Church of Saint-Pierre

The three naves of the church of Saint Pierre are separated by heavy piers which are out of proportion with the stress they bear. The capitals are carved in an unusual style: the characters depicted with their jagged, flat silhouette, have been compared to “human larvae”. Several of them hold crosses but it is difficult to understand what they represent. Whether it was an expression of popular art, the work of local craftsmen or experimental work ahead of the major Romanesque achievements, the question remains unanswered.

The design seems rather to indicate that of a 12th century building.



Bort-l’Etang
Church of Saint-Barthélémy

The ancient parish church of Bort was given by the lord of Thiers to the Moissat priory in 1075. Dedicated to Saint-Barthélémy, it is recorded in the dependency of the Mozat abbey, but the vicar was appointed by the Moisssat prior until the French Revolution. The small church as it is today has retained some Romanesque features. The chief nave is blind; its vault is supported by cantilevered pillars resting on brackets. The side aisles are half-barrel vaulted. On the outside, cordons underline the Romanesque openings. Two wrought iron animal heads have been preserved on the southern door.



Bourg-Lastic
Church of Saint-Fargeon

Some of the features of the church of Saint-Fargeon do not quite belong to Auvergne, but show some influences of styles belonging to neighbouring Limousin. It was the seat of a Port-Dieu priory. The simple layout consists of a single nave of four bays with slightly pointed barrel vaults, supported by transverse ribs resting on half-columns and bordered by chapels from a later period. The transept, with oriented chapels, is protruding and the crossing us topped with a cupola on squinches. A demi-cupola apse completes the simple plan. Capitals are carved.

The trichore chevet on the outsie, constructed of well-dressed granite, has alternate rectangular and round buttresses with carved decorations of geometric patterns or animal figures. The cornice rests on varied modillions. The southern door is decorated with slightly pointed and decorated archivolts



Bulhon
Old priory church of Saint-Vital and Saint-Agricol

The olf priory church of Saint-Vital and Saint-Agricol was founded by the monks of La Chaise-Dieu before 1052. The barrel vaulted nave of this Romanesque building is buttressed by the half barrel vaults of the side aisles. The non-protruding transept with two oriented chapels has a crossing covered with a cupola on squinches. The semi-circular apse lit by three round arched openings set into an arcature is preceded by a straight bay. The building has been altered on several occasions, the porch tower is 19th century. The capitals topping the nave columns show the themes usually found in Auvergne: minotaurs, sheep-bearers, griffins drinking from a chalice, monkey on a leash. As in Volvic, there is a donation scene where a couple is blessed by the devine hand.



Chamalières

The old collegiate church of Notre-Dame is the result of several building campaigns. The western parts are the oldest. In the fore part of the nave, a much restored gallery is supported by a triple arcade with two marble columns and carved capitals. The three naves are separated by strong quadrangular piers topped with imposts. The central nave, originally a wooden roof frame, was later vaulted, when the large arcades and their stays were reinforced. The chevet, with its ambulatory and four radiating chapels is more recent. It was built during the 12th century and can be linked to some of the area’s major works. In spite of having been extensively reworked at the end of the 17th century, it is well balanced, particularly inside. The church has been restored again recently.



Chambon-sur-Lac

Two buildings are worth mentioning. The parish church of Saint-Etienne is Romanesque but has been altered and raised to avoid flooding from the Couze Chambon nearby. In layout, this is a single nave with protruding transept. The semicircular apse is covered with arcatures. The capitals are decorated with foliage, except for one whicch is figured. On the outside, above the Gothic porch, a gable-shaped lintel represents the stoning of Saint-Etienne, with the figures handled according to composition conventions. The other building is the graveyard: a baptistery or a funeral chapel? With a centered layout having a straight bay at the level of the western doorway, its extensively restored decorations draw on a decorative grammar well known in Auvergne: mosiacs, small columns under an entablature, modillions with wood shaving design. A mysterious capital shows a naked man held lying down by three others; Abraham’s circumcisions has been suggested as a possible theme.



Champeix

The village, on the banks of the Couze Chambon, is dominated by the small Marchidial castral chapel. The parish church fo Sainte-Croix, parts of which were built in the 12th century, underwent modifications between the 16th and 19th centuries when the nave and its cover were repaired. The chancel is Romanesque, but what about the fluted pilasters which hold the triumphal arch? Whatever the answer, they are unusual in Auvergne. Each of the Corinthian style capitals is topped by an abacus bearing the inscription ciachin et boot, referring to the first Book of Kings (VII,21) which describes Solomon’s Temple. “He then raised the columns in front of the Temple vestibule. He raised the right hand column and gave it the name of Yakin, then he raised the left hand column and gave it the name of Boaz.” On the outside, the gable shaped lintel over the north door bears the three symbols of the Trinity with the following text underneath “tres trinum signant pollex peccus atq(ve) col(m)ba” (three symbols signifying the Trinity: a raised hand, a lamb and a dove).



Chauriat

Between 1016 and 1025, the churches in Chauriat were given to Sauxillanges abbey in order to establish a priory. It would appear that the ancient Saint-Julien priory church was built in two phases during the 12th century, but has been extensively reworked since. The whole of the western parts can be compared to the church in Saint-Nectaire. The nave, nowadays under a pointed barrel vault, was originally flanked with side aisles topped by galleries, a few traces of which remain. The large arcades rest on cylindrical pillars. Iconographic themes and the treatment of the sculptured decoration are not unlike some of the larger works found in Auvergne. The transept seems a little more recent. However, its structure, crowned with an oblong furring, is frequently seen in the region. The inlaid work is outstanding. The church of Sainte-Marie close by also deserves a visit.



Combronde

Tradition has it that a monastery was founded in Combronde in 506. The priory church, dedicated to Saint Genès (a count of Auvergne who retired in a nearby village), later became a parish church and was often reworked, in particular in 1855 when it was enlarged. The remaining Romanesque parts are noteworthy with a barrel-vaulted nave and capitals. Indeed, one of the latter bears a design which is rare in Auvergne sculpture or even in Romanesque sculpture generally: a young man riding a billy-goat is situated beside a bird-mermaid. Other designs, such as a monkey on a leash and four-footed animals are more traditional.



Cournon
Church of Saint-Martin

According to Grégoire de Tours, a monastery existed in Cournon as early as the 6th century. It was destroyed by the Normans in the 9th century. It seems that a chapter of secularised canons was founded there in 1182. The layout and structure of the church of Saint-Martin resemble those of the great Romanesque works of Basse-Auvergne. The crossing topped with a steeple, the ambulatory and the radiating chapels - only one is recorded - collapsed in the 18th century but were rebuilt in the 19th century, and so were the fore-nave and the western face with its steeple. The Romanesque parts must not be missed: the nave with four bays flanked with side aisles topped with galleries, the diaphragm arches in the crosisng, the six columns of the round end of the choir bearing stilted arches and capitals with plant decorations. Outside, the northern face is also original.



Courpière

A Benedictine monastery was established in Courpière in 1132 by bishop Aymeric. The church was built shortly afterwards, in several stages during the Romanesque period. The three naves are perhaps the oldest parts: the central nave is barrel-vaulted. There is no column on the inside face of the pillars, as is often the case in the region. However, unusually, they slightly jut out from the nave wall. The eastern parts were probably built later. Three apses open onto the transept; they are decorated with an arcature supported by a breast wall. Mitre and round arches alternate between the chancel windows. Typical Auvergne scenes, resembling those found in the du Moutier in Thiers or Glaine-Montaigut churches, are depicted on the capitals. The outside displays a well proportioned chevet.



Culhat

partly built in the 12th century, the church of Saint-Vosy consists of three naves, a protruding transept with apsidioles, a straight bay and a semicircular chancel. The naves and part of the transept were reworked last century (19th). In spite of this, the crossing, at present, is reinforced with wood stays. Outside, the chevet, although restored, has kept its fine Romanesque structure. The various sets of stone fittings, the modillions and the rows of billets surrounding the three openings of the apse are typical of Romanesque decoration in Auvergne. On the way out of the village, a public garden houses a mediaval “lantern to the dead”. These lanterns used to protect a flame which watched over the dead resting in cemeteries. Although many exist in the west of France, they are rarely found in Auvergne.



Dore-L’Eglise

There are records of a church dedicated to the virgin as earry as the 10th century. It became part of La Chaise-Dieu abbey in the 11th century and a priory was added to it which was then dedicated to Saint Blaise. The Romanesque church consists of a single nave with a slightly pointed barrel on transverse ribs (Arlanc), a primitive protruding transept and a semicircular chancel covered with a demi-cupola resting on an arcature. The capitals are decorated with foliage, people and monsters. At the top of the staircase, the western face displays an impressive doorway with a splaying decorated with cantoned colonettes and a multifoiled carved archivolt. The wrought iron door hinges date from the late 12th-early 13th century.



Esteil

Located at the base of a peak where bassalt quarries used to be worked, the village of Esteil is perched in the Livradois foothills. In the middle of the 12th century, the lord of Chateauneuf du Drac donated the property he owned there to the Benedictine abbey at Fontevraud. A community of recluse nuns was the founded. A few remains of the convent buildings have subsisted south of the chapel of Saint-Jean. Romanesque in parts, the chapel has a rectangular layout. In the nave, the pointed barrel vault over the five bays rests on sustaining walls made of basalt and lined with strengthening arcades. A single arch band, held by columns integrated into foilage decorated capitals, strengthens the vault, under a two storied wall belfry. A wall, built on this spot after the Revolution, divides the chapel into two parts. Romanesque openings and modillons decorated with figures are still visible on the north wall.



Glaine-Montaigut

The two phases in the construction of the church of Saint-Jean and an old priory church can still be seen clearly. The western parts, dating from the 11th century, remain: a barrel-vaulted nave directly lit by tall windows, quadrangular piers, side aisles and a non-protruding transept. The building of the whole of the chevet was undertaken during a second phase in the 12th century. It consists of three apses with a set of capitals with highly decorated monumental figyres. Outside and seen from the cemetery, this part has a harmonious appearance and fine bonding of warmly coloured arkose. The church was restored very recently. The 19th century porch went but the colours that might have been seen in the Middle Ages were recovered.




Herment

The collegiate church of Notre-Dame d’Herment is doubly impressive. Both for its external volumes and for the inside perspective it offers as one enters through the west door. Built towards 1145 by Robert III, count of Auvergne, while he was completing his castle on a nearby hillock, this church is on the border of Auvergne and Limousin, and marks the transition between Romanesque and Gothic art. Robert III then gave his church to the Clermont cathedral chapter, who waited until 1232 to found a chapter. The Romanesque structure draws more from Limousin designs than those of Auvergne: a chevet with walls adorned with tall arcatures with buttress pillars at the corners (Meymac), cupola on pendentives over the crossing, Limousin windows (capitals without abacus, with colonnettes extended round the opening by a torus of same diameter). Crossing with stylised capitals.




La Godivelle
Church of Saint-Blaise

This village, lost in the vast Cezalier landscape with its many peat-bogs, is famous for its two mountain lakes, the lake “above” and the lake “below”. There is no mention of La Godivelle in any text until the 17th century. The living was then in the gift of the Clermont bishop. This stocky church, with a single door on the south side, seems to turn its back on the village square and its big fountain. Modillions can be seen under the cornice of the chevet which supports a heavy stone (“lauze”) roof. An enigmatic animal, holding a circular object stamped with a cross in its mouth, is noteworthy. The interior of the church is narrow, with a single nave and a simple apse. A few of the capitals are decorated with figures (fishes).




Lamontgie
Mailhat

A parish church until the Revolution, Notre-Dame came under the Sauxillanges priory. It consists of a single nave to which is grafted a trefoiled chancel which is seen as a polygonal chevet on the outside, a structure also used at Auzon or Mazeyrat-Aurouze in the Haute-Loire.

Over the central nave is a pointed vault and over the bay is a cupola on squinches. The chapels are very nicely decorated. An owl eating a frog, angels, naked and bearded men squatting are all depicted on the capitals. On the outside, the apse is decorated with arcatures. The arching over the south door rests on carved capitals and jambs (woman with snakes). The dooir panels date from the 15th century. A fortified room was added above the apse in the 14th century.



Manglieu

The church of Saint-Sébastien de Manglieu was the seat of one of the oldest monasteries in Auvergne, founded in the 7th century. The chevet, from the Merovingian period, is its most ancient part: square-shaped on the outside, it forms a semi-circular apse on the inside. The apse is covered by a ceiling and opens onto the nave through a chancel arch which rests on columns of reclaimed ancient marble. An attempt to rebuild the monastery, shown by the Romanesque fore-nave, was made in the 12th century, buyt was abandoned. This type of structure on two levels, with large arcatures, can be seen in several Limagne churches. Part of the surviving Romanesque walls were preserved when the nave was rebuilt in the 16th century. Merovingian stone fragments and a few bays from the cloister remain (16th or 17th century?).




Maringues

This market town, on a terrace overlooking the Limagne plain, kept the evidence of a rich past (tanneries, the mansion of the dukes of Bouillon, for example). The church of Notre-Dame, of the ancient La Chaise-Dieu priory, has been reworked, in particular in the 15th and 16th centuries when modifications in Gothic style were made. Only the chancel is still Romanesque, with an ambulatory, three radiating chapels (the south chapel dating from the 16th century), a roundabout with six columns topped with very stilted arcatures (similar to those in Veauce, in Allier). The capitals in the ambulatory, noteworthy, are from the Romanesque period, those of the roundabout have been modified. Themes frequently seen in Auvergne are depicted: monkey kept on a leash by a horseman, money-lender facing demons, the archangels Michel and Gabriel identified by banners and minotaurs.



Marsat

It is likely that an oratory dedicated to the Virgin existed in Marsat as early as the 6th century. A convent of recluse nuns was founded in the 7th century. It was placed under Saint-Martin de Tours in the 9th century, then under the nearby Benedictine abbey of Mozat in 1165. The church has a complex design, consisting of two adjacent Romanesque naves. The north one, the oldest, has two barrel vaulted bays; the 16th century chancel is topped by a 17th century steeple. Only the recluse nuns could use this church which houses a Virgin in majesty (12th century) which was the object of a pilgrimage. The south nave, with four bays with diagonal rib vaulting, leads to the 16th century chancel and is entered from the outside through a carved door depicting the Holy Women at the Sepulchre, a Christ-Judge surrounded by angels and symbols of the Passion. A “roda”, or wax wheel, hangs from the vaults as a remembrance of the last candle offered by a Riom brotherhood before the Revolution.



Menat

The church of Saint-Ménélé is the old abbey church of a monastery founded in the 6th century. The chevet with ambulatory and radiating chapels was demolished in 1804 and rebuilt between 1844 and 1848. From the original Romanesque church (end of 11th century), the only remaining features are the remaining walls, the pillars in the nave and the transept crossing with its ovoid cupola. A wood panelled ceiling replaced the vaults of the chief nave after they collapsed in the 14th century. The ornamentation of the capitals with succelent leaves shows influences from the Poitou area and the building’s originality. One capital from the Romanesque chancel, now taken down, is intended to represent Saint Ménélé refusing to become engaged and placing himself under the protection of the vicar of Menat. Another (Saint Michel) is kept in the Musée des Beaux-Arts in Clermont-Ferrand. The Gothic vestibule opens onto the remains of the abbey.



Moissat

In 911-12, Count Guillaume le Pieux, the founder of Cluny, gave land to the monks of Saint-Lomer in Blois, who were fleeing Norman invasions and took refuge in Auvergne. They built a church dedicated to their patron saint in Moissat, next to the church of Saint-Pierre which they had been given when they settled there. Only Saint-Pierre, which has remained the parish church, still exists. It is composed of a barrel vaulted nave flanked with side-aisles with half-barrel vaults, a non-protruding transept, the crossing of which is covered with a cupola on squinches and a semicircular apse. The great arcades rest on quadrangular piers. The apse is decorated with an arcature whose capitals are carved with stylised foliage patterns. Various fragments of Medieval mural paintings can be seen both on the inside and the outside of the building.



Montfermy

In its dominant position above the Sioule Valley, the small church of Saint-Léger came under the abbey of Ebreuil. Bearing witness to the original Romanesque structure, the three apses are arranged around a crossing in a trefoil layout. They are lit by round arch openings, underlined on the outside by a running torus of billets. Above the cupola on squinches, the only Romanesque feature is the stump of the tower, the belfry being from a later period. The single nave was reworked in the 19th century. A monkey held on a leash and bearded griffins around an urn decorate some of the capitals. A set of 14th century frescoes were uncovered between 1980 and 1985 in the Romanesque parts of the structure: apostolic college, church building scene, collective burial. Three tombstones (14th century) for the de la Roche family stand in the nave.



Montpensier

A powerful fortified castle defended the plain, the way into Aigueperse and the road from Paris to the Midi. It was demolised by order of Richelieu in 1633 as it represented such a threat to the royal authority. The village Romanesque church dedicated to Notre-Dane, with its three naves and three apses, reflects designs in use in the Basse-Auvergne: half-barrel vaulted side aisle, cupola on squinches. The demi-cupola apse rests on a round arch arcature around three openings. Some interesting furniture has been preserved: tombstone, clock and a painted door. The outside has been extensively restored, the belfry was erected at the end of the 19th century.



Nonette

The hillock dominating the village of Nonette was from the early middle ages until 1634 the seat of the formidable castle of the Counts of Auvergne, of the Duke Jean de Berry. The church of Saint-Nicolas, Romanesque but altered in the Gothic period to be later further restored, was a parish and priory church, coming under the abbey of La Chaise-Dieu. The oldest parts remain mostly at the western end. The west porch and some of the capitals in the nave are the most interesting elements: the themes and the workmanship of some of the works seem very clsoe to those found in the church of Mailhat close by, such as monsters devouring a tortoise in the first bay at the southern end, eagles and mermaids. The door is decorated with receding arches adorned with fleurets, animals, figures and monsters. The tympanum, probably reworked, shows an angel surrounded by a cross-bearing lamb and a mermaid.



Orsonnette

Saint-Madeleine was the church of an ancient priory from La Chaise-Dieu founded by the lords of Nonette in the 11th century. It is made up of a single nave, a vaulted bay with diagonal ribs and semicircular apse decorated with an arcature on a breast wall. The apse was reworked in the 19th century when the altar-piece now blocking the central window was installed. On the outside, the chevet is three-sided. The cornice is supported by geometric or figured modillions (cattle and people). The church belongs to a group of 12th century buildings with polygonal chevets and semicircular apsesm such as Mailhat close by or Auzon a few kilometres away. Traces of mural painting are still visible inside and on the tympanum above the door.



Plauzat

A priory coming under the dependency of the abbey of Sauxillanges was founded in Plauzat in the 10th century. A second one was created later on, under the abbey of Chantoin of Clermont. The vicar of the parish church, dedicated to Saint Pierre, was appointed alternately by the authorities of the two monasteries, the so-called “black priory” and “white priory”. From the Romanesque church, the nave, the transept with cupola on squinches and the quadrangular apse (12th century) all remain. The apse walls are decorated with arcatures, with several storiated or figured capitals. On the outside, the least reworked parts, built of arkose, show a few corbels with rolling patterns and a torus of billets around the central window. The west front and side aisles from the nave are Gothic.



Pont-du-Château

Built on a terrace dominating the Allier, the church of Sainte-Martine was the seat of a Cluny priory mentioned ina papal bulla in 1055 and 1058. Although it has been subject to significant alterations, especially in the upper parts, it remains close to the great Romanesque works of Limagne. The structure of the ground-floor of the façade furring and the nave with its great arcades and pillars can be found almost identical in Saint-Nectaire or Orcival. The semicircular apse seems to date from a slightly later period. The storiated capitals also recall frequent themes: monkeys on leashes and mermaids. The upper parts were reworked in the 13th century with the chief nave roofed with diagonal ribs while windows were enlarged. The belfry is modern. The church was further restore very recently, when an attempt was made to recover polychrome decorations.



Randan
Chapel of Jussat

A parish church before the Revolution, the chapel of Sainte-Madeleine is a rural structure full of charm surrounded as it is by its graveyard. It consists of a single nave, a straight bay covered with a cupola on squinches above which rises a stolid square belfry and a semicircular apse, lower down and lot by three openings. Corbels bear witness to a primitive roof - a roof structure replaced in a second phase by the barrel vault still in existence. The chevet gets its rhythm from the three openings that bring light to the apse, picked out with a torus of billets and buttresses that rise up to the cornice, held up by carved modillions. Paintings decorate the door. The chapel was restored a few years ago.



Ris

In 978, Amblard de Thiers, the archbishop of Lyon, gave the monks of Cluny the estates he had just gathered for the foundation of a monastery dedicated to Saint Pierre. Pope Gregoire V confirmed the gift of the priory in 999. It was then dedicated to the Virgin. The church is also the seat of a parish which has been registered since at least the end of the Middle Ages. It has led to several differing archaeological interpretations, notably regarding the three naves and their vaulting. Their narrowness is quite surprising. The chevet seems to come from a slightly later building campaign in the second half of the 11th century. The building is also of interest because of its paintings. They range from the 12th century (horseman hunting deer) to the 15th century (Visitation, Stoning of Saint Etienne, Sainte Marguerite).



Royat

A women’s monastery founded in the 7th century is said to have been replaced in the 10th century by a priory dedicated to Saint Léger and subject to the abbey of Mozat. In 1095 the latter, and thus its dependency, were affiliated to Cluny. The church, flanked by ancient monastic buildings was reworked, fortified (late 13th century?) and adorned with a crenelated belltower around 1830. Entry is through a fore-nave with a loft. The single barrel vaulted nave is divided into bays by two half columns which are not extended by an arch band. The overlapping transept and the chancel ending in a flat chevet raised over a crypt, were built later. Some capitals from the old 11th century chancel must have been reused in the crypt. A storiated capital in the nave is meant to show Ezeechiel shaving his beard on God’s order, or else two Virtues: Strength and Justice.



Saint-André-le-Coq

The village is built on a terrace, to the west of the plain of the Limagne and the old marshland which was drained in the 19th century. The church of Saint-André is a squat-looking building. A porch with a wooden rood structure procedes a forbidding western front, which is propped by strong buttresses and only decorated with three rows of dentils above the door. Inside, the three naves, dimly lit, are separated by sturdy quadrangular piers. The chief nave is covered with a barrel vault while the side aisles shoring it up are half-barrel vaulted. The transept and the chancel in a square design were extensively reworked in the Gothic period. Thus the vault over the narrow crossing of the overlapping transept has diagonal ribs.



Saint-Dier d’Auvergne

The church of Saint-Didier together with its ancient priory overlook the village and the Miodet river. The priory was founded in 1050, during the life of Saint Robert, the first abbot of La Chaise-Dieu. A church was probably built at the time but it was reworked in the 12th century. The layout of this structure is unusual in Basse-Auvergne: the three naves open widely onto a single large-sized semicircular apse. Three chapels are grafted onto this chancel, the central one being to a quadrangular design. Some chevets with radiating chapels without ambulatories also exist in the neighbouring Velay and Brivadois areas (Chamalières-sur-Loire, Blesle). The façade displays careful workmanship, in a way more akin to Velay than Auvergne design, with a decoration of arcatures, receding arches and elegant alternate light and pink millstone arch stones. The church was fortified at a much later date.



Saint-Germain l’Herm

The old priory of La Chaise-Dieu first appears in a text on a diploma dated 1052 in which Henri I confirms the gifts received by the abbey. The church is heterogeneous. The chancel was rebuilt by Jacques de Saint-Nectaire, the abbot of La Chaise-Dieu between 1491 and 1518 - his coat of arms I on the keystone. Some interesting Romanesque parts have survived, particularly the transept with the small oriented demi-cupola apses and the crossing covered with cupola on squinches. The Romanesque capitals of the transept columns show two headed eagles, hares and birds. An extract from the text engraved on the pier to the left on the entry to the chancel gives a date of consecration, or completion perhaps: “Anno ab incarnacione D(omini) M (C)C VII III maii regnante Philippo Franco (rum rege)” (the year of God’s incarnation (1207 or 1107), 3rd of May in the realm of Philippe, king of the Francs).



Saint-Hilaire-la-Croix

A hospital was built in 1128 near the Lac Rouge (distorted into La Croix) and was endowed with a chapel dedicated to Sainte Madeleine and consecrated by bishop Aymeric (before 1151, the year he died). In 1175, it became the seat of a priory dependent on the chapter of Artonne. The new church that replaced the first chapel in the second half of the 12th century looks significantly different from the great Romanesque churches surrounding Clermont. Several elements even point to an evolution towards the Gothic style: a vaulted transept crossing with diagonal ribs, decorated capitals and bases on some of the columns. Nonetheless the structure and the outline of the whole building remain Romanesque. Influences from Western France show on the two portals. Facing the old priory buildings, the southern door has a carved tympanum illustrating the meal at Simon’s with Marie-Madeleine.




Saint-Myon

The Saint-Myon priory came under the abbey of Menat before joining with the Artonne chapter. Modestly sized, the church of Saint-Médulphe presents the same type of chevet as the great Limagne churches, with ambulatory and radiating chapels. The colonade round the choir is made up of six columns supporting arches raised over carved capitals. A good deal of the iconographic motifs are frequently found in Auvergne art: punishment of the miser, minotaurs and griffins. Probably because of its collapse, the transept crossing was roofed with a wooden structure until the 19th century. It was then reworked, together with the upper parts of the three naves. On the outside, the limestone slate roof, now rare in the area, has just been restored. The southern entrance is Romanesque, but the western one might be from the first half of the 13th century.



Saint-Pierre-Colamine

The village of Jonas, including the church and the castle, was excavated into a cliff. In 1223, Dalmas de Jonas made the cliff over as a gift to the Benedictine monks of the abbey of Chantoin in Clermont before going away to the 5th crusade. After the Hundred Years War, the caves were abandoned for more conventional houses at the foot of the cliff. It came under the dependency of the Carmes Déchaussés in 1633 and a large portion of the cliff collapsed in 1706. The troglodyte village was divided into several quarters: defensive, commercial (bakery, etc.), residential and religious. The walls of the chapel are covered with frescoes dating from the 12th century illustrating the life of Christ: the Virgin Marie, the crowning with thorns, the Holy Women at the Sepulchre, two apparitions, the Evangelists and a Christ in Majesty.



Thiers
Church of Saint-Genès

Grégoire de Tours mentions a first building erected on the burial place of Saint Genès, in the 6th century. Guy, the lord of Thiers, gave a chapter to the church dedicated to the martyr in 1016. The bulk of the building may date from the beginning of the 12th century. However, signs of reworking, particularly in the transept and the tripartite chevet, may be the evidence of a previous state of the building. Since its construction, Saint-Genès has undergone many modifications. The wide nave, bordered with groined vaulted side aisles and lit by high windows, was given a diagonal rib vault in the 13th century. Side chapels were added after the 15th century. The very large cupola over the transept crossing, the south cross-bar façade with inlaid decorations, the capitals in the nave derived from the Corinthian style, are particularly interesting. The church of Saint-Symphorien, or “du Moutier”, in the lower town is also worth a visit.



Thuret

Set in the “marais limagnais” (Limagne marsh/flatlands) the church of Saint-Limin in Thuret came under the abbey of Saint-Alyre in Clermont in the 12th century. The builing is similar to several large structures in the Limagne. It is made up of three naves with four bays, a slightly protruding transept, onto which open three semicircular demi-cupola apses, decorated with arcatures. The chief nave has been diagonal rib vaulted since the 15th century. The high windows were enlarged in the 19th century. The gable-shaped lintel over the southern door is decorated with a Christ in Majesty surrounded with clearly identified angels: “hic est scs Micael dns ies xps ece imago [...] sci Gabrieli” (Here is Saint Michel/The Lord Jesus Christ/this image [...] Gabriel). The same carvers seem to have worked on the capitals inside the building. Other themes are also recurrent in Auvergne: “monkey on a leash”, griffins drinking from a chalice, foliage. A wedding or foundation scene keeps its mystery.



Tourzel-Ronzières

Dominating the village of Ronzières - and the church of Saint-Jean Baptiste - the church of Notre-Dame Saint-Beauzire stands on a plateau, apart from the village. Its steeple, capped with a 19th century dome, can be seen from afar. It is probably one of the first rural parish churches of the Clermont diocese. Its layout is simple: three naves with bays, a transept with a crossing covered by a cupola on squinches and a chevet with three semicircular chapels. The three naves, which may be the oldest parts of the building, were originally covered with timber roof structures. The capitals, hardly decorated, may come from other works. The Virgin in Majesty on Ronzières is the object of a pilgrimage on the 8th of September.



Vensat
Chapel of Andelot

The old priory church of Notre-Dame is a fairly homogeneous 12th century edifice, built in Chaptuzat limestone. Apart from the belfry which was destroyed, it has not been subjected to any major modifications. The smooth barrel vault of the central nave is buttressed by the half-barrel vaults of the aisles; the diaphragm wall marking the boundary of the crossing is pierced with a twin opening, the semicircular apses are embellished with an arcature. Although containing elements which are usual in Romanesque art of the Basse-Auvergne, the architecture differs significantly with the trefoiled layout of the chevet (Montfermy), the proportions of the nave, which is wide and relatively low, and the long span of the great arcades. The capitals were never completely finished. Several fine modillions can be seen under the cornice.



Vodable
Colamine-sous-Vodable

Until the end of the Ancien Régime, the church of Saint-Mary de Colamine, situated in the parish of Vodable, was one of three parish churches in what was then the capital of the Dauphins of Auvergne. It was also the seat of a small priory which came under Sauxillanges. The secluded location of the church, in the middle of a cemetery, adds to its rural charm. The demi-cupola apse is decorated with arcatures, whose columns rest directly on the ground. The capitals of the columns are embellished with plant and geometric patterns. The straight bay in front of the choir is covered by a cupola on squinches. The nave consists of two bays, has a pointed barrel vault and seems to be of a later construction than the eastern parts, from the 11th century. The aisles and chapels were added at a later date. Several wooden statues (14th-16th centuries) were found when the altarpiece was removed from the chancel.



Volvic

A monastery was established in Volvic in the 7th century, over the relics of bishop Priest. It was only from 1165 that the priory is known to have been part of Mozat. Since the Volvic quarries started to be worked extensively only from the 13th century onwards, the church was built in arkose, which was often the case in the region. Of the Romanesque church, only the chevet remains. Its structure is similar to that of other large works, although its proportions are different. The boundaries of the elongated apse are marked by a round end with four columns and an ambulatory with three radiating chapels. The height of the vault (Maringues) is also distinctive. Noteworthy among capitals is that representing Guillaume de Bezac, a donor, with the inscription “Incipit donalia sanct Pre (je)cti que fecit Guillelmes de Bez() pro anima sua et conj(jugis).” The chevet, on its outside, is decorated with coloured mosaic (Chauriat, Notre-Dame du Port). Romanesque railing in the central chapel.



Yronde

Located between a mound where the château de Buron stood and a valley which was the site of the lost Cistercian abbey of Bouchet, the church of Saint-Martin was used by the priory of Manglieu from 1018. On the outside, the various types of stonework reveal a construction in several stages. The Romanesque and regularly built semicircular apse and western doorway are in contrast with the gabled wall of the main face and of the aisles of the nave. Inside, the nave is covered by a smooth barrel vault and the crossing by a cupola on squinches. The apse is adorned with an irregular arcature resting on a breast wall. Part of the furniture originates from the old abbey of Bouchut. The belfry, destroyed in 1793, has been rebuilt.



Dauzat-sur-Vodable

Perched on a basalt peak above the valley of the Couty, the church came under a fortified priory, a few records of which still exist. It is a simple squat construction, in the middle of its own graveyard, and was probably rebuilt at the end of the Romanesque period and remodelled in the 15th century.



Roche-Charles-la-Mayrand

The small church of Notre-Dame, an ancient castle chapel perched on a spur in the middle of a cemetery is lost in pastures that can be reached a few kilometres walk from the village of Boslabert. It was the seat of a parish until 1875. The short barrel vaulted nave opens onto an austere chancel. Above the arcade opening onto the chancel, a passage leads to a room which was added in the 14th century to fortify the chapel. The southern doorway is decorated with carved scalloped voussures.



Saint-Hérent

On a rock dominating the village of Saint-Hérent, the small country Romanesque church in a graveyard does not lack interest, whether inside with its single nave with an apse decorated with arcatures, or outside with its two notable wall belfries.



Saint-Floret
Church of the Chastel

In a dominant position over the Couze valley and the old village (bridge, castle), the church of the Chastel lies in a medieval burial ground, with a bone house and anthropomorphic sarcophagi cut directly into the rock. Inside,a fresco (late 14th - early 15th century), shows the lord of Saint-Floret and his family kneeling in front of the Virgin Marie, being presented by Saint Jean-Baptiste.



Saurier
Chapel of Brionnet

On the Brionnet promontory, a small chapel overlooks the pretty fortified village of Saurier (medieval bridge, 16-17th century houses). The chapel was place of pilgrimage for a long time. In every direction, there are distant views of mountains, valleys and the plain far away. An orientation table helps visitors get their bearings in the vast landscape.



Usson

Usson is one of the villages in Auvergne which have been known as a stronghold since the 6th century. It was for a long time in the possession of the Counts of Auvergne, then of the Duke Jean De Berry before being integrated into the royal estates. It was Richelieu who had the castle dominating the peak of Usson destroyed. There only remains a beautiful village surrounded by fortified walls and an originally Romanesque church which has preserved some fine furniture.




Glossary

Abacus: stone slab covering the capital.

Ambulatory: gallery for moving around the choir and often bordered with radiating chapels.

Apse: this is the end of the church, usually oriented to the east, semi-circular and capped with a semi-cupola (a vault in the shape of a quarter sphere).

Apsidiole: a small apse. When it is around the ambulatory, it is called a “radiating chapel”.

Arch band: an arch that reinforces the vault under which it is placed, perpendicular to the nave.

Arcature: a set of arcades

Archivolt: a moulding underlining an arch in its upper part.

Barrel or tunnel vault: vault created by a succession of arches. Round arches form a half-cylinder.

Billet cordon or moulding: decorative moulding made up of a succession of small semi-cylindrical shapes.

Capitals: this is the wider part crowing a column, which supports the arcade. Often carved, they are “storiated” (i.e. decorated with narrative scenes) or decorative (representing plants, birds, animals....).

Chancel: place of the main altar in the church

Chevet: a chevet typical of Auvergne architecture comprises the choir (where the altar is placed) surrounded by the round end of the choir and the radiating chapels.

Chief nave: the part linking the narthex to the transept (the place for the congregation). It is the central structure of the church. In the major churches, it is bordered north and south by side-aisles with upper galleries.

Choir: it is the semi-circular part where the alter is situated and where services are held. It symbolises Heaven. It is usually raised over a few steps to symbolise God’s greatness. The vaults covering it are lower than those over the transept, to help focus on the altar.

Crypt: underground part situated under the chevet, and built to the same layout. It holds the relics of the saints and martyrs belonging to the monastery.

Demi-cupola: a quarter spherical vault, or half a cupola.

Gable-shaped lintel: a stone block crowning an opening, whose upper parts form a triangular shape.

Modillion: a block of carved stone placed under a cornice to hold it ip.

Narthex: this is the part of the church situated before the nave, at the west end of the building. It used to be reserved to the non-baptised.

Tetramorph: the symbolic representation of the four evangelists. John the eagle, Matthew the man, Mark the lion and Luke the bull.

Transept: this is the part running across the chief nave forming the arms of the cross.



Taken from the booklet “Romanesque Art in the Puy-de-Dôme” published by the Puy-de-Dôme Tourist Board, 1998.